Introduction to the Theatre

THE 101 / University of Idaho

Chapter 11 / Greek Drama

Historical Background

     The Greek civilization developed out of a nation of individuals called the Ionians.   These shrewd merchants, traders, and sailors easily and peacefully extended their influence and wealth over the Mediterranean.   When their growth reached the limits where a centralized form of government was necessary for stability, the Greek form of democracy was established.   Greek democracy centers on three principles, the concept of the Polis, city-states, and democratic representation.   The concept of Polis, or a country of citizens, established the rights of male citizens to vote and have individual representation.   City-states established regions of agricultural specialization, geographic boundaries, and cultural ethnicity like the city-states of Athens and Sparta.   The use of democratic representation was a unique notion for its time and presented male citizens freedom in exchange for service to the state.   This service was of either a military or political nature and was expected of all citizens.

     When we talk of Greek Theatre we are talking about the 5^th century BCE (before the Christian era).   This period is known as the 'golden age' of Greece.   However, Greek theatre as an art form grew out of a religious ceremony established centuries earlier.   The Greek's were a polytheistic culture, meaning they had many gods.   The Greek people believed their gods were a belligerent lot and constantly meddled in the affairs of humans.   When the gods were not at war with humans, they were at war with each other.   The Greeks feared the power of the gods and this was a central theme in their plays.   One of these gods was named Dionysus.   Dionysus was the god of fertility and hence of wine making, agriculture, and sexuality.   At the time of harvest the workers would offer prayers to Dionysus for the richness of the harvest and for continued success.   Greek shaman or priests would also take these moments to tell the story of Dionysus’s death and resurrection.   However, Dionysus was no ordinary god.  He was a human first.

     Scholars speculate that these rituals were carried out in threshing circles where the harvesters would separate out the grain from the stalk, and the wheat from the chaff.   Any ritual that is continually performed over time becomes more elaborate and formalized.   The Greek rituals were no different.   The shamans began to conduct more and more elaborate ceremonies using song, dance, prayer, and sacrifice.   This form of ritual was called the Choric Dithyramb.   In addition the modern word for tragedy comes from the Greek word Tragoida, which means the ‘goat song’, or the bleating of the goat, makes as it is led to sacrifice.

The Theater

     The Greek theater (Theatron) is built upon many of the symbols found in the Choric Dithyramb and its presentation.

   The main acting area in many ways resembles a threshing circle and is called the orchestra.   The audience is in front and surrounds the orchestra on three sides.   In the middle of the orchestra is an altar called the Thymele and on this altar is a phallus or fertility symbol representing the role of Dionysus.   In some Theatron’s the Thymele is off to one side.   Behind all of this is the paraskene a low acting platform and the skene a single story building with three doors in the side facing the audience.   The acting entrances on either side of the skene and between the skene and the audience were called the parados.   Finally rampe or ramps allowed easier access from the parados to the paraskene.

     Ultimately, these rituals grew in size to a great scale.   The theatre of Dionysus in Athens held nearly 10,000 audience members and the theatre at Epiduras 16,000.   The Greeks were also a competitive culture, they competed in athletics and established the Olympics, and they also competed in commerce, art, and poetry (of which theatre is part).   Many city-states had these competitions during state and religious festivals.   The festival in Athens was called the City Dionysia and was of such immense stature that during the festival it was considered a state holiday.   Many businesses were closed for the celebration and the duty bound citizens were expected to attend.

     The City Dionysia was a five-day event, which included three days of plays.   On each day, a playwright would present three tragedies and a satyr play.   The satyr play was a bawdy piece of entertainment, full of vulgar humor and sexual innuendo.   These plays and there purpose remain relatively obscure.   However, scholars speculate that perhaps after three tragedies you needed a good laugh?   To organize these festivals a manger called an Archon was hired.   An 'angel' or Choragus provided the funding as service to the state.   This was no small financial matter.   The Choragus was responsible for the company, composed of 3 actors and a chorus of 15, for up to a year between festivals.

The Playwrights and Theatrical Conventions

     As Greek theatre developed the balance between actors and chorus varied.   The structure of Greek tragedy, as outlined in the chapter on analyzing plays, remains pretty much the same.   However the plots and themes central to Greek theatre change.   For instance, Aeschylus (525 - 456 BCE) who wrote Prometheus Bound, and the Orestia is credited with instituting the 2nd actor allowing for greater dialogue between the protagonist and the antagonist.   In addition, Sophocles (496 - 406 BCE) who wrote Antigone, Oedipus Tyrannus, and Antigone is credited with developing the role of the 3rd actor increasing both the dynamics of the plot and establishing a greater use of spectacle.   Furthermore, Euripides (488 - 406 BCE), who was an admiral, is credited for bringing strong themes into drama that questioned not only the gods but mans behavior.   Many of his plays can be considered anti-war and anti establishment, including Electra, Agamemnon, and Trojan Women.  Finally Greece's premier comedic writer, Aristophanes (450 - 390 BCE), penned The Frogs, and The Clouds.

    Greek theatre also had a set number of conventions.   Since Greek society saw its fair share of war, no violence was allowed on stage.   More importantly, it was not the 'seeing' that was important, but the events that lead up to the act and the resulting repercussions, that was important.   In addition, Greek society was highly segregated between male citizens, women, and slaves.   No women were allowed to act in Greek theatre and scholars still speculate about their attendance at the festivals.   Since the acting companies were mainly composed of military men and recruits, the acting style was conventional and presentational.   In addition, theatre was a religious ceremony and governed by state law, all citizens took in the theatre with a great amount of respect and reverence.   One must think hard to imagine 16,000 people sitting still enough to hear the words from one actor.  

    Greek theatre also used a chorus.   The chorus in many cases was used to deliver the exposition, while also serving as the voice of the Greek people - the Polis.   The parts of a Greek play were organized and formalized (Poetics).   There was a unity of the parts and there was an economy of roles.   Only the most essential characters to the action and the story were represented and there was no curtain or intermission.   Finally, Greek theatre used the concept of deus ex machina or 'God out of a machine'.   Since the Greek gods meddled in the affairs of humans they usually show up from time to time.   When the gods magically appear at the end of the play to resolve the dilemmas of the characters, you have witnessed a deus ex machina.

The Staging and Spectacle

     Greek theatre used a great deal of spectacle for its time.   Scholars speculate that the costumes became quite elaborate.   Actors wore the standard clothing of the day, a chiton or tunic, as well as the himation or early toga, and chalymus or traveling cape.   However, to gain height it is said that kothurni or short stilts were worn and to better project character, the use of masks was employed.   However, the nature of the masks, whether large and ornate or small and neutral, is still hotly debated.   Finally, since men played all the roles in the Greek theatre, wigs were needed to help signify the female actor.

     As for the scenery, Greek theatre was quite complex.   A series of scenic machines or machina were needed to accomplish the needs of production.   In the three doorways of the skene pinakes, or panels, could be inserted with designs or locations painted upon them.   More advanced three sided pinakes - called periaktoi, could be revolved in the skene openings to reveal three different scenes, which allowed for scene changes.   Since violence was not permitted on stage, dead bodies and other after the fact atrocities were rolled out on low-wheeled wagons called eccyclema.   And finally, since the meddlesome gods were always flying in and out of the action, lifting devices or kranes were needed to fly the actors playing the gods.