Suggestions on Conducting an Interview

Preparded by Rodney Frey
9 August 1998

Before you begin the actual interview, think about the information you hope to gather. What are the goals of your project? What sort of information are you seeking? Is it a life history of a particular individual (first-person, idiosyncratic experiences, i.e., "he/she did it", bound by a specific cultural and historical context)? Is it the oral traditions of another person that you seek (stories, traditions, historical information passed down through different people to your interviewee, remembrances not necessarily experienced by the interviewee, "he/she learned it from others")? Or is it possibly a person's mythology ("true stories" which are expressive of universal motifs and archetypes, and are considered "timeless")? What are the particular parameters of your research, e.g., a particular geographic area, historical period, economic way of life, educational or health care system, or governmental or religious structure? Who might best be able to offer you the information you seek? Is your interviewee a "willing" and enthusiastic participant? Does he/she have the time to work with you?

Goal setting is the single most important aspect of your project. Ask yourself where you are at now, where do you want to go and how are you going to get there? Clarify your goals and your means to get there. Fuzzy goals result in frustration and missing important information. Have a vision of what may await you, but also be willing to re-direct your goals as you grow in your project. Develop a list of potential interviewees. Make a topical outline, establishing your research parameters and goals. Don't go into the interview "cold." Gain an awareness of the cultural context and historical background of the particular information you seek. Research your topics. Consult with relatives and friends of your intended interviewee, local historians, libraries, newspapers, university resources. Learn the broad characteristics of the territory. What sorts of questions need to be asked?

Prepare open - ended questions. You may know the broad topics, but you do not know the specifics. You're as an "infant," learning someone else's cultural story for the first time. "You don't know it." Use open-ended, evocative questions like: "Why did you...?" "How did you feel about...?" "What was it like...?" "Could you describe how...?" "What sort of person was he/she...?" Ask the who, what, when and most importantly, the why questions. Open-ended questions let your interviewee set the direction of information sharing and let him/her "lead." Ask questions that spark the imagination and focus the interview, that attempt to reveal the cultural story of the interviewee.

If you are seeking a person's life history, develop questions that chronicle a life-span, questions about birth place, parents and family, memories from infancy and adolescents, schooling, travel, employment, etc.

Avoid closed-ended questions that elicit "yes-no" answers like: "Did you like...?" "Were you affected by your teachers ...?" "Are the traditions still...?" They have their place, such as determining the date and place of birth, years in school, etc. But it is a limited place.

Avoid generalities like: "Tell me all about your childhood...?" which elicits nothing more than a list of names and dates, and a very bored interviewee. Ask instead, "What did you like to do when you were six or seven?"

Write down your questions. Know the questions you seek from your interviewee. But don't be rigid about your list. Questions will always be waiting for you once you are in the actual interview process.

To get shy people to open up to the interview, take along photos or objects (heirlooms or memorabilia, tools, maps, diagrams, etc.) and ask the interviewee to tell you about them. Props can also "draw out memories." Remember to number each prop and mention it in the tape recording.

In order to accurately record and, in turn, communicate another's cultural story, it is recommended that you use an audio or video tape recorder. It is preferable that your recorder has a detachable microphone in order to pick-up the best possible sound quality. Be familiar with your taping equipment. Experiment with mike placement, volume, brand of tape, etc. before you begin. Make sure the sound quality is good. Gather recording equipment: video recorder and tripod or audio cassette recorder, blank tapes (unwrap tapes, advance lead of tape and always bring more blank tapes than you think you'll need), fresh batteries or extension cord and 3-prong adaptor, separate microphone and foam pad, pen and note pad.

It is critical that you first gain permission from your interviewee to use the obtained information. It is ethically essential that the interviewee fully understand the nature of the research procedures that he or she will be subjected, and to what end the research will be used. If someone else's cultural story is to be recorded and shared publicly (with fellow students, for example), an Informed Consent Form should be signed by the interviewee. Review with the interviewee the purposes and procedures of the interviewee. If there are any special conditions or if the interviewee wishes to remain anonymous, his or her wishes must be respected and acknowledged. See Consent Form.

In addition to oral interview information, do not forget to gather other cultural artifacts such as family photographs, art work, etc. Copies may have to be made from them. As you collect these objects be sure to catalog them and record all information known about them.

To get started with the interview, make an appointment with your interviewee ahead of time (in person, phone or letter). Be sure that the location for the interview is at a site that minimizes interference by others. Be on time to your first interview session. Schedule the session around the interviewee's family needs. Clearly introduce yourself and your project intentions to your interviewee. Answer any questions about the project. Go over the Informed Consent Form and gain his or her signature. Clearly explain the procedures, and the focus and parameters of the interview. Interview only one person at a time. If you're talking to the interviewee and another person wants to put in his "two cents' worth," tell him you would love to interview him, but at another time soon. It's best to make this clear before you begin your interview. The best way to guarantee this is to have just you and your interviewee present in the room. Make sure there's no background noise (t.v., dishwasher, other conversations) that may interfere with the quality of the tape. Make sure everyone is comfortable, with good seating and water. And always do a brief test of your audio/video equipment to be sure the mike is picking up both voices clearly.

Break the ice by chatting briefly about related topics before you start the tape recording. But don't turn the tape recorder off and on more then absolutely necessary once it's going. It's a good idea to tape a brief introductory lead-in before you ask your first question. Tell who is being interviewed, by whom, when, and the general subjects to be covered.

A key to a successful interview is in using good questioning and listening skills. Be honest and sincere, "be yourself." Interviewing is the art form of dialoguing with another human being; you are in conversation with someone else. It is a give-and-take situation. If you want honest and sincere information, you have to give it. Get acquainted. Establish your "kinship;" establish "rapport."

Begin by asking for a brief (2 or 3 minute) bit of background information about the interviewee: where and when born, parents, major places lived during life, careers or other important areas of personal experiences. Easy to answer and non-intimidating questions help relax the interviewee.

People can usually describe concrete things more easily than conceptual. Start with the concrete. You want answers that are descriptive as well as factual. "Can you describe your home outside and inside?" or "Would you explain to me what you did in a typical day's work?" are good examples.

Don't talk too much about yourself. Resist the impulse to contribute your own stories or information or to put words in the mouth of the person you're interviewing.

Don't talk to the recorder or the mike; talk to the person you're interviewing, with lots of direct eye contact (if appropriate, given the cultural considerations of your interviewee). If you act as if the mike isn't there, chances are your interviewee will soon forget about it, too.

Refer now and then to your general topical questions; keep your goals in mind. But don't let your specific questions and goals become your "script." Let the interviewee set the direction and the lead; he/she is the one with the information. Be an active listener. Ask questions based upon your interviewee's responses. Be flexible. Don't be afraid of going off on a "tangent." Don't be so anxious about asking your next question that you fail to hear what your interviewee is saying.

Sometimes the best information comes up unexpectedly. If you're into something good, follow it up with appropriate, follow-up questions. Follow-up questions can also elicit more detailed information as well as to make sure your interviewee has had a chance to tell all he/she wants to tell. "What happened then?" "How did you feel about that?" "How did that turn out?" After pursuing this line of inquiry, guide the interviewee back to your original questions.

Try not to interrupt your interviewee. If your interviewee mentions something you'd like to follow up, wait for a natural pause in the conversation and then say something like: "A few minutes ago you were saying that..." Don't ask more than one question at a time.

Don't rush into every pause with a new question. Silences are natural, and they may give your interviewee a chance to think of additional materials on the subject. Silence is not wasted time. Take advantage of the "silent probe."

Show your interviewee that you're interested through nods and facial expressions. Express your appreciation with occasional responses like: "That's a great story!" or "That's really interesting!" The way you ask questions, your tone of voice, your body language, are all keys to the responses your questions will get.

Don't make irrelevant or distracting comments. And never contradict your interviewee, whether you agree with what the person is saying or not. Instead, ask further questions that shed light on the issue being discussed. It may help you determine the various versions to a given situation or event. There can be many differing accounts of the same event, all of which are "correct." Remember the difference between interviewing and cross-examining.

If your interviewee can't or won't give you an answer to a particular question, it's better to move on. You must acknowledge that there will be some information that you will not be able to gather. Gaps will exist. Some of the story may not be meant to be shared publicly. It may be too personal or even sacred for your interviewee.

Establish a basic time frame by asking: "What year was that?" or "About how old were you when that happened?" If your interviewee doesn't know, try to get at least a rough idea by asking a further question like: "How long afterward was that, a month? a year?"

Try to establish what your interviewee's role was in the events he/she is describing--a participant, an observer, etc. Or, if he/she is passing on a story rather than describing a personal experience, try to determine who he/she heard it from or the original source of the story.

If your interviewee uses unusual words or linguistic terms that are unfamiliar to you, have the interviewee explain them and try to spell them out.

Adjust the length of the interview to your interviewee's comfort and attention span. Forty-five minutes to an hour is a good length. If it's too short it will probably be superficial, and if it's too long it will get uncomfortable. You can always take a break and resume later. Older folks tire more easily; cut the interview off at the first sign of fatigue.

It is likely that numerous sessions will be needed for some interviewees. Let the interviewee know ahead of time that there can be future sessions.

And always remember whose story you're trying to tell. Try not biasing your information with your own perspective. You want to present the story of your interviewee from his/her own perspective. Attempt to see the world through his/her eyes. You have the tremendous responsibility of continuing to speak your interviewee's voice for all the others, as well as the future generations, who will read your interview.

After the interview is completed, show your sincere appreciation by thanking your interviewee. Then follow-up with a formal letter of appreciation. Ask your interviewee if he/she is willing to sign the Informed Consent Form (if he/she has not already done so), allowing you to share his or her story publicly.

Label the tape clearly with the name of your interviewee, the date and your name. Break out the tabs on the tape so it doesn't get erased by accident.

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Indexing the interview is the next essential step. Prepare a written index of the audio/video tape recording, using a stopwatch or clock. The purpose of the index is to summarize the contents of the interview and to indicate approximately where on the tape a certain subject is discussed.

Indexing by the minute is best since the meter number systems vary from machine to machine. Use a stopwatch or a clock. Divide the tape into approximately five-minute segments or by the obvious breaks in subjects.

Make your index fairly detailed--especially if you do not intend to transcribe the entire taped interview. A detailed index will make even a cassette that is not transcribed useful to other researchers. Index by names, dates, place names, processes, family names, customs, events, etc., indicated by the information in the interview. Do the index as soon as possible after the interview so the subjects are still fresh in your mind.

Using the index of the tape recording as your guide, next transcribe those selected portions of the text that you want to include in your written report. The goal in transcribing an interview is to provide an accurate, verbatim written record of the interview dialogue in a form which will best represent your interviewee's cultural story. Transcribe everything that is said by the interviewee, including colloquial pronunciations, "yeah" and "goin'," as well as indicate the pauses in the speech pattern, phrase repetitions, and voice inflections placed on specific words. Meaning is conveyed not only in the words spoken but also in the way those words are spoken.

There is an acknowledged relationship between what you present and how you present it. Given the nature of your information, be it oral history/life history or be it mythology, the style of presentation can enhance or detract from the intended meaning of the cultural story. For example, if you include mythological stories, should you not also include a copy of an audio presentation of that story by the narrator as part of the report? The form and style of your finished product should be dictated by the type of information you collect.

It is strongly recommended that you show your written index and the story transcription to your interviewee and ask him/her to check it for accuracy. After all, your interviewee is the "authority." A review can also spark additional insights and memories by the interviewee. Be ready for another interview session.

It is most appropriate to leave a copy of the transcribed story text with your interviewee. There is no better way of saying thank you than by presenting your interviewee with a personal copy of his or her own story. You may also want to donate the cultural story (tape, index and transcription) to your local library or college oral history achieve.

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