Fostering Resilience in Children.
ERIC Digest.
ERIC Identifier:
ED386327
Publication Date: 1995-08-00
Author: Benard, Bonnie
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood
Education Urbana IL.
THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER. FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT
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This digest summarizes a growing body of
international, cross-cultural, longitudinal studies that provide
scientific evidence that many youth--even those with multiple and severe
risks in their lives--can develop into "confident, competent, and caring
adults" (Werner & Smith, 1992); and discusses the critical role schools
can play in this process.
THE NATURE
OF RESILIENCE
Some longitudinal studies, several
of which follow individuals over the course of a lifespan, have
consistently documented that between half and two-thirds of children
growing up in families with mentally ill, alcoholic, abusive, or
criminally involved parents or in poverty-stricken or war-torn
communities do overcome the odds and turn a life trajectory of risk into
one that manifests "resilience," the term used to describe a set of
qualities that foster a process of successful adaptation and
transformation despite risk and adversity. Resilience research validates
prior research and theory in human development that has clearly
established the biological imperative for growth and development that
exists in the human organism and that unfolds naturally in the presence
of certain environmental characteristics. We are all born with an innate
capacity for resilience, by which we are able to develop social
competence, problem-solving skills, a critical consciousness, autonomy,
and a sense of purpose.
SOCIAL COMPETENCE includes qualities such as
responsiveness, especially the ability to elicit positive responses from
others; flexibility, including the ability to move between different
cultures; empathy; communication skills; and a sense of humor.
PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS encompass the ability to plan; to be resourceful
in seeking help from others; and to think critically, creatively, and
reflectively. In the development of a CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS, a
reflective awareness of the structures of oppression (be it from an
alcoholic parent, an insensitive school, or a racist society) and
creating strategies for overcoming them has been key.
AUTONOMY is having a sense of one's own identity and
an ability to act independently and to exert some control over one's
environment, including a sense of task mastery, internal locus of
control, and self-efficacy. The development of resistance (refusing to
accept negative messages about oneself) and of detachment (distancing
oneself from dysfunction) serves as a powerful protector of autonomy.
Lastly, resilience is manifested in having a SENSE OF PURPOSE and a
belief in a bright future, including goal direction, educational
aspirations, achievement motivation, persistence, hopefulness, optimism,
and spiritual connectedness.
From this research on resilience, from the literature
on school effectiveness (Comer, 1984; Edmonds, 1986; Rutter et al.,
1979), and from a rich body of ethnographic studies in which we hear the
voices of youth, families, and teachers explaining their successes and
failures (Heath & McLaughlin, 1993; Weis & Fine, 1993), a clear picture
emerges of those characteristics of the family, school, and community
environments that may alter or even reverse expected negative outcomes
and enable individuals to circumvent life stressors and manifest
resilience despite risk. These "protective factors" or "protective
processes" can be grouped into three major categories: caring and
supportive relationships, positive and high expectations, and
opportunities for meaningful participation.
CARING
RELATIONSHIPS
The presence of at least one caring
person--someone who conveys an attitude of compassion, who understands
that no matter how awful a child's behavior, the child is doing the best
he or she can given his or her experience--provides support for healthy
development and learning. Werner and Smith's (1989) study, covering more
than 40 years, found that, among the most frequently encountered
positive role models in the lives of resilient children, outside of the
family circle, was a favorite teacher who was not just an instructor for
academic skills for the youngsters but also a confidant and positive
model for personal identification. Furthermore, as the research of
Noddings (1988) has articulated, a caring relationship with a teacher
gives youth the motivation for wanting to succeed: "At a time when the
traditional structures of caring have deteriorated, schools must become
places where teachers and students live together, talk with each other,
take delight in each other's company....It is obvious that children will
work harder and do things...for people they love and trust." Even beyond
the teacher-student relationship, creating a schoolwide ethos of caring
creates the opportunities for caring student-to-student,
teacher-to-teacher, and teacher-to-parent relationships. An ethic of
caring is obviously not a "program" or "strategy" per se, but rather a
way of being in the world, a way of relating to youth, their families,
and each other that conveys compassion, understanding, respect, and
interest. It is also the wellspring from which flow the two other
protective factors.
HIGH
EXPECTATIONS
Research has indicated that schools
that establish high expectations for all youth--and give them the
support necessary to achieve them--have high rates of academic success.
They also have lower rates of problem behaviors such as dropping out,
drug abuse, teen pregnancy, and delinquency than other schools (Rutter
et al., 1979). The conveying of positive and high expectations in a
classroom and school occurs at several levels. The most obvious and
powerful is at the relationship level in which the teacher and other
school staff communicate the message that the student has everything he
or she needs to be successful. As Tracy Kidder (1990) writes, "For
children who are used to thinking of themselves as stupid or not worth
talking to...a good teacher can provide an astonishing revelation. A
good teacher can give a child at least a chance to feel, She thinks I'm
worth something; maybe I am'." Through relationships that convey high
expectations, students learn to believe in themselves and in their
futures, developing the critical resilience traits of self-esteem,
self-efficacy, autonomy, and optimism.
Schools also communicate expectations in the way they
are structured and organized. The curriculum that supports resilience
respects the way humans learn. Such a curriculum is thematic,
experiential, challenging, comprehensive, and inclusive of multiple
perspectives--especially those of silenced groups. Instruction that
supports resilience focuses on a broad range of learning styles; builds
from perceptions of student strengths, interests, and experience; and is
participatory and facilitative, creating ongoing opportunities for
self-reflection, critical inquiry, problem solving, and dialogue.
Grouping practices that support resilience promote heterogeneity and
inclusion, cooperation, shared responsibility, and a sense of belonging.
And, lastly, evaluation that supports resilience focuses on multiple
intelligences, utilizes authentic assessments, and fosters
self-reflection.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTICIPATION
Providing youth with opportunities
for meaningful involvement and responsibility within the school is a
natural outcome in schools that have high expectations. Participation,
like caring and respect, is a fundamental human need. Several
educational reformers believe that when schools ignore these basic needs
of both students and teachers, schools become alienating places (Sarason,
1990). On the other hand, certain practices provide youth with
opportunities to give their gifts back to the school community and do
indeed foster all the traits of resilience. These practices include
asking questions that encourage critical thinking and dialogue
(especially around current social issues), making learning more
hands-on, involving students in curriculum planning, using participatory
evaluation strategies, letting students create the governing rules of
the classroom, and employing cooperative approaches (such as cooperative
learning, peer helping, cross-age mentoring, and community service).
CONCLUSION
Along with other educational
research, research on resilience gives educators a blueprint for
creating schools where all students can thrive socially and
academically. Research suggests that when schools are places where the
basic human needs for support, respect, and belonging are met,
motivation for learning is fostered. Reciprocal caring, respectful, and
participatory relationships are the critical determining factors in
whether a student learns; whether parents become and stay involved in
the school; whether a program or strategy is effective; whether an
educational change is sustained; and, ultimately, whether a youth feels
he or she has a place in this society. When a school redefines its
culture by building a vision and commitment on the part of the whole
school community that is based on these three critical factors of
resilience, it has the power to serve as a "protective shield" for all
students and a beacon of light for youth from troubled homes and
impoverished communities.
FOR MORE
INFORMATION
Benard, B. (1991). FOSTERING
RESILIENCY IN KIDS: PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN THE FAMILY, SCHOOL, AND
COMMUNITY. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research
and Development. ED 335 781.
Comer, J. (1984). Home-School Relationships as They
Affect the Academic Success of Children. EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY 16:
323-337.
Edmonds, R. (1986). Characteristics of Effective
Schools. In U. Neisser, Ed., THE SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT OF MINORITY
CHILDREN: NEW PERSPECTIVES (pp. 93-104). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum. ED 269 500.
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and Vulnerability to
Adverse Developmental Outcomes Associated with Poverty. AMERICAN
BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST 34: 416-430. EJ 430 590.
Heath, S.B., and M.W. McLaughlin, Eds. (1993).
IDENTITY AND INNER-CITY YOUTH: BEYOND ETHNICITY AND GENDER. New York:
Teachers College Press. ED 360 415.
Kidder, T. (1990). AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN. New York:
Avon. Noddings, N. (1988). Schools Face Crisis in Caring. EDUCATION
WEEK, December 7.
Rutter, M., B. Maughan, P. Mortimore, J. Ouston, and
A. Smith. (1979). FIFTEEN THOUSAND HOURS. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Sarason, S. (1990). THE PREDICTABLE FAILURE OF
EDUCATIONAL REFORM. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ED 354 587.
Weis, L., and M. Fine, Eds. (1993). BEYOND SILENCED
VOICES: CLASS, RACE, AND GENDER IN UNITED STATES SCHOOLS. New York:
State University of New York Press. ED 361 416.
Werner, E., and R. Smith. (1989). VULNERABLE BUT
INVINCIBLE: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF RESILIENT CHILDREN AND YOUTH. New
York: Adams, Bannister, and Cox.
Werner, E., and R. Smith. (1992). OVERCOMING THE ODDS:
HIGH-RISK CHILDREN FROM BIRTH TO ADULTHOOD. New York: Cornell University
Press, 1992. ED 344 979.
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This publication was prepared with funding from the
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of
Education, under OERI contract no. RR93002007. The opinions expressed in
this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI
or the Department of Education. ERIC digest are in the public domain and
may be freely reproduced and disseminated.
Title: Fostering Resilience in Children. ERIC Digest.
Document Type: Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis
Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in
Full Text (073);
Descriptors: At Risk Persons, Child Development, Critical
Thinking, Educational Environment, Elementary Secondary Education,
Grouping (Instructional Purposes), Interpersonal Competence, Personal
Autonomy, Personality Traits, Problem Solving, Student Evaluation,
Student Motivation, Student Participation, Teacher Expectations of
Students, Teacher Student Relationship, Teaching Methods
Identifiers: Caring, ERIC Digests, Resilience (Personality)