Rick Factors:
Risk Factors
The following
information is reprinted with permission from Developmental Research and
Programs (now Channing Bete Company).
RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTOR
PREVENTION:
What Does It
Mean for Community Prevention Planning?
All across our country, adults concerned about the
healthy development of young people are searching for answers to the
behavior problems of alcohol and other drug abuse, delinquency,
violence, school dropout, and teen pregnancy. How do we step ahead of
the problems with solutions which are far-reaching and lasting?
Research has shown there are a number of risk factors
that increase the chances of adolescents developing health and behavior
problems. Equally important is the evidence that certain protective
factors can help shield youngsters from problems. If we can reduce risks
while increasing protection throughout the course of young people's
development, we can prevent these problems and promote healthy,
pro-social growth.
The following is a summary of the research-based risk
factors and the problem behaviors they predict (in parentheses).
COMMUNITY RISK FACTORS
Availability
of Drugs (Substance Abuse)
The more available drugs are in a community, the
higher the risk that young people will abuse drugs in the community.
Perceived availability of drugs is also associated with risk. In schools
where children just think that drugs are more available, a higher rate
of drug use occurs.
Availability
of Firearms (Delinquency and Violence)
Firearm availability and firearm homicide have
increased together since the late 1950s. If a gun is present in the
home, it is much more likely to be used against a relative or friend
than an intruder or stranger. Also, when a firearm is used in a crime or
assault instead of another weapon or no weapon, the outcome is much more
likely to be fatal. While a few studies report no association between
firearm availability and violence, more studies show a positive
relationship. Given the lethality of firearms, the increase in the
likelihood of conflict escalating into homicide when guns are present
and the strong association between availability of guns and homicide
rates, firearm availability is included as a risk factor.
Community laws
and norms favorable toward drug use, firearms, and crime (Substance
Abuse, Delinquency and Violence)
Community norms - the attitudes and policies a
community holds about drug use and crime - are communicated in a variety
of ways: through laws and written policies, through informal social
practices, and through the expectations parents and other members of the
community have of young people.
One example of the community law affecting drug use is
the taxation of alcoholic beverages. Higher rates of taxation decrease
the rate of alcohol use at every level of use.
When laws, tax rates, and community standards are
favorable toward substance use or crime, or even if they are just
unclear, children are at higher risk.
Another concern is conflicting messages about
alcohol/other drugs from key social institutions. An example of
conflicting messages about substance abuse can be found in the
acceptance of alcohol use as a social activity within the community. The
"Beer Gardens," popular at street fairs and community festivals
frequented by young people, are in contrast to the "Just Say No"
messages that schools and parents may be promoting. These conflicting
messages make it difficult for children to decide which norms to follow.
Laws regulating the sale of firearms have had little
effect on violent crime and those effects usually diminish after the law
has been in effect for multiple years. In addition, laws regulating the
penalties for violating licensing laws or using a firearm in the
commission of a crime have also been related to reduction in the amount
of violent crime, especially involving firearms. A number of studies
suggest the small and diminishing effect is due to two factors: the
availability of firearms from other jurisdictions without legal
prohibitions on sales or illegal access, and community norms which
include lack of proactive monitoring or enforcement of the laws.
Media
Portrayal of Violence (Violence)
The effect of media violence on the behavior of
viewers (especially young viewers) has been debated for over three
decades. Research over that time period has shown a clear correlation
between media violence and the development of aggressive and violent
behavior. Exposure to media violence appears to impact children in
several ways. First, children learn from watching actors model violent
behavior, as well as learning violent problem-solving strategies.
Second, media violence appears to alter children's attitudes and
sensitivity to violence.
Transitions
and Mobility (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, and School Dropout)
Even normal school transitions predict increases in
problem behaviors. When children move from elementary school to middle
school or from middle school to high school, significant increases in
the rate of drug use, school misbehavior, and delinquency result. When
communities are characterized by frequent non-scheduled transition
rates, there is an increase in problem behaviors.
Communities with high rates of mobility appear to be
linked to an increased risk of drug and crime problems. The more often
people in a community move, the greater the risk of both criminal
behavior and drug-related problems in families. While some people find
buffers against the negative effects of mobility by making connections
in new communities, others are less likely to have the resources to deal
with the effects of frequent moves and are more likely to have problems.
Low
Neighborhood Attachment and Community Disorganization (Substance Abuse,
Delinquency, and Violence)
Higher rates of drug problems, juvenile delinquency,
and violence occur in communities or neighborhoods where people have
little attachment to the community, where the rates of vandalism are
high, and where there is low surveillance of public places. These
conditions are not limited to low income neighborhoods; they can also be
found in wealthier neighborhoods.
The less homogeneous a community is in terms of race,
class, and religion, the less connected its residents may feel to the
overall community, and the more difficult it is to establish clear
community goals and identity. The challenge of creating neighborhood
attachment and organization is greater in these neighborhoods.
Perhaps the most significant issue affecting community
attachment is whether residents feel they can make a difference in their
lives.
If the key players in the neighborhood--such as
merchants, teachers, police, human and social services personnel--live
outside the neighborhood, residents' sense of commitment will be less.
Lower rates of voter participation and parental involvement in schools
also indicate lower attachment to the community.
Extreme
Economic Deprivation (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Violence, Teen
Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
Children who live in deteriorating and crime-ridden
neighborhoods characterized by extreme poverty are more likely to
develop problems with delinquency, teen pregnancy, school dropout, and
violence. Children who live in these areas--and have behavior and
adjustment problems early in life--are also more likely to have problems
with drugs later on.
FAMILY RISK FACTORS
Family History
of the Problem Behavior (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Teen Pregnancy,
and School Dropout)
If children are raised in a family with a history of
addiction to alcohol or other drugs, the risk of having alcohol and
other drug problems themselves increases. If children are born or raised
in a family with a history of criminal activity, the risk of juvenile
delinquency increases. Similarly, children who are raised by a teenage
mother are more likely to be teen parents, and children of dropouts are
more likely to drop out of school themselves.
Family
Management Problems (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Violence, Teen
Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
The risk factor has been shown to increase the risk of
drug abuse, delinquency, teen pregnancy, school dropout, and violence.
Poor family management practices include lack of clear expectations for
behavior, failure of parents to monitor their children (knowing where
they are and who they are with), and excessively severe or inconsistent
punishment.
Family
Conflict (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Violence, Teen Pregnancy, and
School Dropout)
Persistent, serious conflict between primary
caregivers or between caregivers and children appears to enhance risk
for children raised in these families. Conflict between family members
appears to be more important than family structure. Whether the family
is headed by two biological parents, a single parent, or some other
primary caregiver, children raised in families high in conflict appear
to be at risk for all of the problem behaviors. For example, domestic
violence in a family increases the likelihood that young people will
engage in delinquent behaviors and substance abuse, as well as become
pregnant or drop out of school.
Parental
Attitudes and Involvement in Drug Use, Crime, and Violence (Substance
Abuse, Violence and Delinquency)
Parental attitudes and behavior toward drugs, crime,
and violence influence the attitudes and behavior of their children.
Parental approval of young people's moderate drinking, even under
parental supervision, increases the risk of the young person using
marijuana. Similarly, children of parents who excuse their children for
breaking the law are more likely to develop problems with juvenile
delinquency. In families where parents display violent behavior towards
those outside the family, there is an increase in the risk that a child
will become violent.
Further, in families where parents involve children in
their own drug or alcohol behavior - for example, asking the child to
light the parent's cigarette or get the parent a beer from the
refrigerator - there is an increased likelihood that their children will
become drug abusers in adolescence.
SCHOOL RISK FACTORS
Academic
Failure Beginning in Elementary School (Substance Abuse, Delinquency,
Violence, Teen Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
Beginning in the late elementary grades, academic
failure increases the risk of drug abuse, delinquency, violence,
pregnancy, and school dropout. Children fail for many reasons. It
appears that the experience or failure--not necessarily
ability--increases the risk of problem behaviors.
This is particularly troubling because, in many school
districts, African American, Native American, and Hispanic students have
disproportionately higher rates of academic failure compared to white
students. Consequently, school improvement and reducing academic failure
are particularly important prevention strategies for communities of
color.
Lack of
Commitment to School (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Teen Pregnancy, and
School Dropout)
Low commitment to school means the young person has
ceased to see the role of student as a viable one. Young people who have
lost this commitment to school are at higher risk for substance abuse,
delinquency, teen pregnancy, and school dropout.
In many communities of color, education is seen as a
"way out," similar to the way early immigrants viewed education. Other
subgroups in the same community may view education and school as a form
of negative acculturation. In essence, if you get education, you have
"sold out" to the majority culture. Young people who adopt this view are
likely to be at higher risk for health and problem behaviors.
INDIVIDUAL/PEER RISK FACTORS
Alienation/Rebelliousness (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, and School
Dropout)
Young people who feel they are not part of society,
are not bound by rules, don't believe in trying to be successful or
responsible, or who take an active rebellious stance toward society, are
at higher risk of drug abuse, delinquency, and school dropout.
Alienation and rebelliousness may be an especially
significant risk for young people of color. Children who are
consistently discriminated against may respond by removing themselves
from the dominant culture and rebelling against it. On the other hand,
many communities of color are experiencing significant cultural change
due to integration. The conflicting emotions about family and friends
working, socializing or marrying outside of the culture, may well
interfere with a young person's development of a clear and positive
racial identity.
Early and
Persistent Antisocial Behavior (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Violence,
School Dropout, and Teen Pregnancy)
Boys who are aggressive in grades K-3 are at higher
risk of substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. However, aggressive
behavior very early in childhood does not appear to increase risk. When
a boy's aggressive behavior in the early grades is combined with
isolation or withdrawal, there is an even greater risk of problems in
adolescence. This increased risk also applies to aggressive behavior
combined with hyperactivity or attention deficit disorder.
This risk factor also includes persistent antisocial
behavior in early adolescence, like misbehaving in school, skipping
school, and getting into fights with other children. Young people, both
girls and boys, who engage in these behaviors during early adolescence
are at increased risk for drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, violence,
school dropout, and teen pregnancy.
Friends Who
Engage in the Problem Behavior (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, Violence,
Teen Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
Young people who associate with peers who engage in
problem behavior - delinquency, substance abuse, violent activity,
sexual activity, or school dropout - are much more likely to engage in
the same problem behavior. This is one of the most consistent predictors
that research has identified. Even when young people
come from well-managed families and do not experience
other risk factors, just hanging out with friends who engage in the
problem behavior greatly increases the child's risk of that problem.
However, young people who experience a low number of risk factors are
less likely to associate with friends who are involved in the problem
behavior.
Favorable
Attitudes Toward the Problem Behavior (Substance Abuse, Delinquency,
Teen Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
During the elementary school years, children usually
express anti-drug, anti-crime, and pro-social attitudes. They have
difficulty imagining why people use drugs, commit crimes, and drop out
of school. However, in middle school, as others they know participate in
such activities, their attitudes often shift toward greater acceptance
of these behaviors. This acceptance places them at higher risk.
Early
Initiation of the Problem Behavior (Substance Abuse, Delinquency,
Violence, Teen Pregnancy, and School Dropout)
The earlier young people begin using drugs, committing
crimes, engaging in violent activity, dropping out of school, and
becoming sexually active, the greater the likelihood that they will have
problems with these behaviors later on. For example, research shows that
young people who initiate drug use before the age of 15 are at twice the
risk of having drug problems as those who wait until after the age of
19.
Gang
Involvement (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, and Violence)
Research has shown that children who have delinquent
friends are more likely to use alcohol or other drugs and to engage in
delinquent or violent behavior than children who do not have delinquent
friends. But the influence of gang involvement on alcohol and other
drug use, delinquency and violence exceeds the influence of delinquent
friends on these problem behaviors. Gang members are even more likely
than children who have delinquent friends to use alcohol or other drugs
and to engage in delinquent or violent behavior.
Constitutional
Factors (Substance Abuse, Delinquency, and Violence)
Constitutional factors are factors that may have a
biological or physiological basis. These factors are often seen in young
people with behaviors such as sensation-seeking, low harm-avoidance, and
lack of impulse control. These factors appear to increase the risk of
young people abusing drugs, engaging in delinquent behavior, and/or
committing violent acts.
This was reprinted with permission from
Channing Bete Company (CBC), South Deerfield, Massachusetts, developers
of Communities That Care©,
a community risk-focused prevention training system. All rights
reserved. No reproduction or transmission in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, for any
purpose without the express written permission of CBC Inc., is allowed.
Information on Communities That Care
training and Communities That Care Investing in Your Community's Youth:
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