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  University of Idaho
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  Psychology Dept.
  University of Idaho

The first type of application that we often use reinforcement in a systematic manner is token economies. Basically what token economies are designed to do is provide some kind of secondary reinforcer (a token), for some kind of appropriate behavior. In addition to that, these tokens can also be removed for inappropriate behavior. These types of token systems are often used in a variety of different settings including group homes, educational settings and even institutional settings.

Usually, as we see in slide three, we give tokens for appropriate behavior and remove tokens for inappropriate behavior. Now, what are specific types of tokens? Well as we see on slide four, tokens can be anything. They can be stars which are often used in grade school settings for a wide variety of behavior; including reading books, being good, etc. However, tokens can also be coins that one can exchange for other things, such as candy bars, etc. And finally tokens can even be cigarettes. Coins and cigarettes are often highly desired in institutional settings.

The second aspect of reinforcement can be used in educational settings. Usually this is done with some kind of token economy in early grades as we’ve talked about. The classic use of stars can significantly increase student performance, and they’re very cheap. However, there are other aspects and things one can do to increase academic performance in an educational setting by using reinforcement paradigms (and even punishment paradigms if necessary). That is the use of variable interval pop quizzes. If quizzes are worth a lot of points, (say 100 points a pop), a pop quiz can significantly increase the studying behavior of a college student.

A third application of reinforcement is applied in work settings and these occur in a variety of different aspects. The first, as we see in slide six, the one aspect of using reinforcement relates to bonuses for work completion. Here individuals, when they complete a major project get some kind of bonus. This can be extremely, extremely reinforcing and make them work harder in the future. In addition, you can also use a variety of fixed ratio schedules, that is, using piece work to increase academic performance. For example, every time you make five widgets, you get a reinforcer. Often times you will get significant increases in responding over other traditional models. Now, one schedule that is very ineffective at increasing behavior in work settings is a fixed interval schedule. If you want to only increase work productivity, a fixed interval schedule is not an effective way to do that. However, this schedule does have aspects of helping with worker morale and things like that. So one has to be careful of whether or not they want to use this kind of model.

In general, with a fixed interval schedule for reinforcers, the problem is the long delay between reinforcers. That is, the worker usually gets paid every two weeks. In addition, you oftentimes get post reinforcement pauses. That is, when you get paid on Friday, work performance on Monday is usually in the toilet. So, this model which we traditionally use is very, very problematic. However, the social ramifications of using different types of schedules is very intense and one has to be very careful.

Now a third application of reinforcement can occur in medical settings. Oftentimes we use a variety of different mechanisms to help with a variety of behaviors. The classic one is to use reinforcement for things such as weight reduction, food control for diabetics, etc. However, it can also be used for other things, such as flossing. The classic example of a reinforcement paradigm occurs within insurance agencies. Basically providing you some kind of a reinforcement, ala reduction in your insurance costs for not smoking, having good weight, etc. It can be used to increase healthy behaviors, such as providing money for you to exercise regularly at some health type of facility. So, reinforcement can be used in a wide variety of medical settings and is often done for many, many different things.

The next application of reinforcement occurs in counseling settings. In essence, the use of reinforcement is mandatory in making behavioral changes. Reinforcement is often used in family counseling, child counseling and even individual counseling to help you make behavioral changes.

Now the next major one, as we see in slide nine, also occurs with reinforcement. That is, using reinforcement principles with our domestic companion (or what many people call a pet). In general, what we often do is use some kind of shaping procedure with our pet (Have it go get the newspaper). Whatever it may be, use of reinforcement can modify many, many types of behaviors.

Finally, in conclusion, what we have seen is that reinforcement applications can be used everywhere; and generally with everything. If you’re really wanting to try to get good behavioral change, this is the methodology to use. In the next section we will discuss aversive conditioning. So until then, have a wonderful day.