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  Psychology Dept.
  University of Idaho

There’s a variety of different ways that we can examine memory. Generally, you can examine memory at a variety of different stages or phases within the memory process. These are listed in slide two. That is, the encoding stage, the storage stage, and the retrieval stage. So let’s talk about these in a little bit more detail starting with slide three.

The encoding stage has in essence two phases. First, an acquisition phase when you first discover or first encounter an item and develop a memory trace. That is, the relevant experience leaves some kind of memory or record in the memory system. From that you move into the next stage (shown on slide four). That is, the storage stage.

In the storage stage, memory traces are held in some enduring form for later use.

So, we’ve had some kind of encounter with a stimulus and we have it stored. So then what happens? Well, we move to slide five and see what is called the retrieval stage. In the retrieval stage, one in essence tries to recall some particular memory trace amongst all the other memory traces that are out there being stored.

So, when we’re studying memory and we’re looking at all these things, we’re examining them from a variety of different contexts.

Now, all of the aspects of storage, retrieval, and encoding are aspects within the memory process and all three areas of these processes are studied by psychologists. So how do we study memory? What do we in essence have to do? We begin by examining slide seven.

The major person who first began the systematic study of memory was Ebbinghaus.

Ebbinghaus’s techniques that were developed in the 1800s are still used today, and he developed a variety of different types of methodologies. So, let’s talk about some of those and kind of get an idea about what they are.

The first memory task that one can use is called a serial learning task and is shown in slide eight. In the serial learning task, what one does is have you look at a list of words for a few seconds. Then after a period of time haselapsed, you try to recall the words in the order which they were listed. So let’s give an example of that on slide nine.

As you can see, there’s a variety of different words here. So what I’d like you to do is take a minute (use a stop watch) and try to memorize all of these words in order. After one minute has elapsed, write them down on a separate sheet of paper in order. See how well you do. You can stop here and then restart.

With the serial learning task, you were able to recall a few items within the list. Some of you might have recalled 9 or 10 of the items. But what you found was that you weren’t usually able to recall all the items. This is a classic example of a serial learning task.

So what’s the next kind of task we use to examine memory. This is shown on slide 10 and is called a paired associate task. Here you present two items at once, then you later try to recall one item when you’re given the other. An example of this technique is shown in slide 11.

As you can see, there are a variety of different word pairs. For example, we have the pairs book and light, ice and chalk, and on and on. What you need to do is memorize the pairs. Then do the same thing that you did with the serial learning task. So, try to memorize the pairs for a minute or two, then stop and then see how many pairs that you recall.

Now if you examine (after you have looked at the list of paired words) how many pairs you got right, what you found is that you actually got quite a few right. In fact you might have even gotten more right than when you used the serial learning task. The question and a problem is why.

When you look at these particular items, what comes to mind with you? Well oftentimes these words have meaning. When you put the meaning within things, you begin to make associations. For example, book and light. Book light. That is a much easier way to memorize something than book and light, or ice and chalk, phone clip and on and on. The more of these that you can associate, the more meaning that you can put with the words. And as we see in slide 11 the more problems that we have when examining the memory theory.

So Ebbinghaus discovered that because words had meaning, people were able to recall what large numbers of items. So Ebbinghaus’s solution was to develop what he called nonsense syllables. Nonsense syllables were basically of two types, where you had three consonants together, or a consonant, a vowel, and a consonant. So let me give you an example on slide 13. What I’d like you to do again is a classical serial learning task. Memorize the list of nonsense syllables in order and recall them. Do the same thing that you did with the first serial learning task. So take a minute and do that.

Now that you are done with looking at the words and trying to memorize them, what did you find? You found that this list and items was significantly more difficult than you had with the other serial learning task where you were using just whole words. So, as a result of that, when you take out the meaning of a particular set of stimuli, it becomes more difficult to recall. This example is something that can be used in a variety of learning settings for yourself when you’re trying to memorize something. The more meaning you can apply to something, the more likely you are to recall it.

Now, the next major task that Ebbinghouse developed was what he called a free recall task. In a free recall task you try to recall some particular item without any hint. It’s not the same as a serial learning task and it’s very difficult. The classic example goes something like this and is shown on slide 14.

Name all of the 50 states, or name every brain structure. You don’t have to worry about the order in this case, but what you do have to worry about is getting all the items. The classic example of this task for students is what we call a fill in the blank exam. So, you’re having to fill in all the different items, and it’s very, very difficult.

Now the last task that we use to study learning is what we call a recognition task. Here you recognize or recall information that you have seen before. The classic example of a recognition task is a multiple choice exam where you have some word and then you have five or six or four options which to cue you. Then you choose the most correct response.

So in each of these cases, we have a variety of different tasks that can be used for learning. Thus, there’s a variety of different ways that we can examine learning at the encoding, storage, or retrieval stage. And we have a variety of different things we can use to help ourselves when we’re trying to recall information.

In the next section, we’re going to begin to discuss some factors that influence memory, so until that time, we hope that you enjoy your day and we will see you soon.