In the last couple of sections we have been examining a
variety of different memory aspects. In the two previous sections, we looked
at early theories of memory (stage or multiprocess theories). Then we
examined some different brain structures that were involved in memory. In
this section we begin a discussion of the second major memory model called
depth of processing models. As we see in slide two, there are many different
types of theorists associeated with these models, but the two key papers are
by Craik and Lockhart and Craik and Tulving. These are the classic papers
that basically set the approach for everything.
Depth of processing models take a different approach than
stage theory. In essence, depth of processing models rely on a computer
model of memory. In many ways it’s similar to stage theory. However, the
major difference is the way people view how the memory storage process
occurs. Specifically, theorists believe is it’s a more active process than
the passive process described by elaborative rehearsal in the Atkinson and
Shiffrin model.
So let’s examine an example of a computer analogy in slide
four. In sensory memory, what we have is some kind of sensory memory going
in the short term memory and then in the long term memory. If we look at a
computer, what we have is some kind of input that moves into random access
memory, and then that material is saved in the hard drive. When we want to
retrieve the data, the hard drive material is moved to random access memory,
and then we can do something with it.
What goes on in memory says Craik and Lockhart is that
memories are processed (shown on slide five) not held in storage by some
brain structures. Basically, they contend it’s not the storage capacity of
the short term memory that’s important, but the amount of information that
can be processed at any one particular time. That is, it’s a processing
limitation. As a result, it’s very similar to the random access memory
limitations that you have within your own computer. That is, you can only
have a certain amount of material going on at one time within your computer.
And if you exceed that amount the system crashes.
So how does memory enter the system? Or, how does
information enter the system? What we see in slide six is called depth of
processing. Depth of processing looks at shallow versus deep processing. So
what is shallow processing? Well, as we can see in slide seven, shallow
processing is basically the superficial characteristics of a stimulus. It is
the sound. It doesn’t require a lot of work. You just know that it's there.
In contrast, deep processing, as we see in slide eight, refers to
determining what the meaning of the sound is. For example, the meaning of
the sound that you’re listening from me is all the different words and
things about some aspect of learning. There may be other sounds out there as
well. In this office I’m hearing a light buzzing in the background, and I
hear my computer buzzing as well. So the sound is the shallow processing and
determining the meaning of each sound is the deep processing that goes along
with that.
Now there’s a variety of different components that are
important within this processing system and these are shown here on slide
nine and include organization, chunking of the information, pneumonics, and
imagery. Ultimately, all of these components are used within our recognition
and our processing of information.
Now there’s some important aspect as well and this begins
a discussion of what we call schemas. Schemas, as we see in slide 10,
basically help with the processing of the meaning that we have. And in
general, the more knowledge you have about a particular object, the easier
it is for you to recall. The question then became why? In essence what you
do is develop some kind of a framework to recall the particular piece of
information you have. So as we see with an example in slide 11, they help
you to enhance your memory. So let me give you an example.
Don’t look at the content on the side of this page. What
I’d like you to do is identify the following. It’s an animal, it walks on
legs, it lives outside, it eats grass, apples and many, many other things.
What is it?
Well as you can probably think, there are lots and lots
and lots of possibilities. As we can see over the next couple of slides,
what you try to do is narrow the possibilities. So when I say. “It says
moo,” you know that it’s a cow. But on the other hand, I say that it says
“baa,” then we know it’s a sheep. So, as we narrow the possibilities, you
have a higher probability of recognizing what the particular thing is.
So, (as we see in slide 14) as we narrow the
possibilities, you get better recall with the more associations you have and
ultimately the recall you have for a particular object. All of these aspects
of schemas represent different and deeper levels or information processing,
and the more associations you make the deeper the processing.
Thus, the reason that you perform better on things such as
overlearning and other tasks is that the processing and schemas you develop
are deeper. We see this on slide 15. In general, organization is related to
deep processing. So the more you have, the better off you are. So ultimately
as we narrow the possibilities, schemas refer to cognitive structures in
which some kind of data events are answered. They’re very broad and there
are few specifics that go with them. So how do we get stuff that’s a little
bit more specific. Well one of these relates to what we call scripts (which
are shown in slide 17).
Scripts are related to schemas, but they describe characteristics of a
behavior that occurs within a particular setting. So, I’d like you to think
about going into a restaurant and what happens. What’s the script that
occurs?
We get to the restaurant and we walk through the door. We
are greeted by a receptionist of some sort. The receptionist then takes our
name and seats us. If we have to wait for a couple minutes, we sit around.
If they have our reservation, we then go to some particular table. After
being seated, what happens? The menus are then brought around, we are asked
if we want to have some kind of adult beverage, and then we scan the menu
and order the particular food. We then eat the food, after it comes. We then
engage in some light conversation, and then we pay the bill and leave. So,
basically what we see is there is a specific script to what is going on.
Now there’s another aspect of memory that’s important as
well and that is what is called spreading activation. The spreading
activation concept was developed by Collins and Loftus. Basically what they
argue is that words and concepts are linked through complex systems of
relationships. These words and concepts are in essence called nodes. The
association between nodes are indicated by lines or arrows, and the shorter
the line, the stronger the association or link. Thus the stronger the
activation. This is what we see in the following figure on slide 19.
Let’s say that we are going to start with the concept of
fire engine. In fire engine, what we have is a variety of different links.
Some are very short, some are much longer. The short ones are things such as
the color “red,” which we always think of as red fire engine. Red also
triggers similar concepts of ambulance. It might also trigger a concept such
as fire truck. Longer concepts may be the fire house or the actual fire
itself and on and on and on. Note that each of these concepts also trigger
other things. So when I say the word fire engine, it basically spreads an
activation of memories across the brain system and across your memory model.
In general, we have talked about depth of processing
models. It is a much more elaborative model of memory and as a result we
have a more detailed analysis.
In the next section, we begin to discuss some aspects of other things
related to memory, such as forgetting, decay, and retrieval of memories. So
until that time, have a great day.
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